The tourism and hospitality (T&H) industry has been recognised as a critical sector to achieve gender equality and is associated with United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals: Goal 5, achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls and Goal 8, promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, and productive employment and decent work for all. The development of governmental and inter-governmental frameworks, such as the Equal Employment Opportunity Law and the UN Global Compact with Women's Empowerment Principles, promote gender equality initiatives (GEI) of multinational companies including global hotels. Nonetheless, some scholars suggested that the progress of GEI has been slow, complex, and inconsistent globally, which may be reversed after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The possible rhetoric-practice gap for gender equality underpinned the aim of this doctoral study to investigate the effectiveness of the implementation of gender equality initiatives, particularly in the realm of hospitality organisations. To obtain comprehensive understanding of how GEI have been implemented, this thesis investigates the extent of GEI available in the sector, the perception of organisational actors regarding GEI, and how institutions influence the implementation of GEI.

The doctoral study outlined in this thesis is guided by three research objectives (ROs) and associated research questions (RQs):

RO1. To examine the extent to which GEI have implemented in T&H organisations. RQ1a) What are the existing GEI implemented by T&H organisations? RQ1b) What are the rhetoric-practice gaps between academic research and T&H organisations regarding GEI? RQ1c) How do T&H organisations evaluate GEI?

RO2. To examine the perception of organisational actors regarding the implementation of GEI. RQ2a) How do organisational actors perceive the effectiveness of implementation of GEI? RQ2b) How do organisational actors impact the implementation of GEI?

RO3. To investigate the extent to which institutions influence the implementation of GEI. RQ3a) What are the key institutions that impact the implementation of GEI? RQ3b) How do institutions influence organisational actors to implement GEI?

This thesis is underpinned by theories from other disciplines from behavioural psychology to sociology. Theories include organisational justice theory, system justification theory, and neo-institutional theory, which helped the researcher to gain an exhaustive understanding of the implementation of GEI. This doctoral research is guided by a combination of pragmatism and critical realism guides the research objectives. The first research objective is addressed through a pragmatist paradigm focusing on how the extent of GEI aligns with industry practice. The paradigm evolves to critical realism by acknowledging the value of unpacking the complex nature of reality regarding GEI. The second and third research objectives are addressed through a critical realist paradigm, which shares the same interest with pragmatism that aims to understand practical problems for societal change of gender equality but offers systemic approaches to tease out what contributes to the inconsistent and complex implementation of GEI.